Environment, Resources and Sustainability

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This is the collection for the University of Waterloo's School of Environment, Resources and Sustainability.

Research outputs are organized by type (eg. Master Thesis, Article, Conference Paper).

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Distribution, Abundance, and Spatial Variability of Microplastic Pollution in Surface Waters of Lake Superior
(University of Waterloo, 2018-08-14) Cox, Kara; Armitage, Derek; Courtenay, Simon
Plastic pollution in oceans and lakes has been a concern for more than three decades, and largely through the breakdown of large plastics, microplastic pollution has been of real concern for over 20 years. Most research has focused on marine settings but freshwater systems are equally vulnerable to microplastic pollution. The Laurentian Great Lakes system has been the subject of little microplastic research and Lake Superior has received even less focus than the other four lakes. The objective of this study is to fill that knowledge gap and determine the abundance and spatial distribution, spatial variability, and polymer identities of microplastic pollution in the surface waters of Lake Superior. In 2014, 94 double net samples were collected from the surface waters of Lake Superior and preserved. These samples comprise the most comprehensive surface water survey of any of the Great Lakes to date, and the first to employ double neuston net trawls. Since there is not yet a standardized sampling method, a comparison of side-by-side samples will indicate whether single net surveys are sufficient and could be used as the standard sampling method. A total of 187 samples was processed using wet peroxide oxidation and analyzed using a dissecting microscope. A sampling of all plastic particles collected were also analyzed using FTIR spectrometry to determine polymer identity. Abundances calculated throughout Lake Superior show wide variability, ranging between 4,000 to more than 100,000 particles/km2 but the majority of locations have an abundance between 20,000 to 50,000 particles/km2. Average abundance in Lake Superior is 30,271 particles/km2 (95% confidence interval of the mean ranges from 20,917 to 39,797 particles/km2) which suggests a total count of more than 2.4 billion (1.7 to 3.3 billion) particles across the lake’s surface. Both the calculated average and lake wide total for Superior are higher than Lake Michigan, which as an average abundance of 17, 276 particles/km2 and holds roughly 1 billion particles. Lake Erie is more polluted than both Lake Superior and Lake Michigan, with an average abundance of 105,502 particles/km2 and a total of roughly 2.7 billion particles. Lake Superior was expected to have lower abundances than Lake Michigan because of lower population density and industrialization, but the higher numbers can likely be attributed to the greater size and longer residence time of Lake Superior.  Distributions of plastic particles, characterized by size fraction and type, differed between nearshore and offshore samples and between samples collected in Eastern versus Western portion of the lake. No difference was detected between the paired net samples, indicating that single net sampling produces a representative estimate of microplastic particle abundance and distribution within a body of water. Most of the particles found were fibres (67%), and most were contained in the smallest classified size fraction (0.3-1 mm) indicative of the low population density and industrialization along the shores of Lake Superior. The most common type of polymer found was polyethylene (51%), followed by polypropylene (19%) which was expected given global plastics production is dominated by polyethylene, followed by polypropylene. This is also similar to results obtained from other studies. Types of plastic present, when separated by morphology and size, can help identify pollution sources which is a necessary step in plastic pollution management.
Learning from Experience to Operationalize Integrated Coastal and Marine Management
(University of Waterloo, 2020-12-16) Eger, Sondra; Courtenay, Simon
Integrated coastal and marine management (ICM) is a system of governance that moves beyond traditional sector-based management. ICM is compatible with the holistic vision of a social-ecological systems (SES) approach. Despite its global recognition, operationalizing ICM has proven difficult. As a consequence, few ICM initiatives have been implemented within coastal and marine SES. The purpose of this research is to examine which elements and characteristics of governance contribute to the operationalization of ICM initiatives and ultimately, sustainable coastal and marine social-ecological systems. This dissertation is driven by the following three research objectives: to synthesize progress with ICM initiatives internationally in relation to governance (Chapter 2); to assess past and current ICM initiatives and identify critical challenges to operationalizing ICM in the Bay of Fundy (Chapter 3); and, to identify opportunities for ICM and to develop a suite of recommendations for moving forwards ICM in the Bay of Fundy (Chapter 4). Multiple methods were used to address these objectives. First, a systematic review of international literature on ICM initiatives was conducted revealing empirical evidence from international experience, and specifically, that a set of three core governance characteristics are important to operationalize ICM initiatives (Chapter 2): formal structures that form the legal basis for ICM through policy instruments (e.g., laws, acts, regulations); meaningful inclusion of diverse actor groups and knowledge types (e.g., social, cultural, traditional, local); and, innovative mechanisms, such as those other than sectoral top-down structural approaches. Next, semi-structured interviews (n=68) with participants who had experienced with ICM initiatives were undertaken within the Bay of Fundy region. Results from the interviews identified five critical challenges connected to an entrenched ‘business as usual’ mentality within conventional top-down centralized governance (Chapter 3). Critical challenges included: inconsistent commitment from legal authorities; inadequate capacity to sustain initiatives; inappropriate engagement of diverse actor groups; poorly supported informal structures and processes for horizontal integration; and, insufficient vertical integration of policies. Lastly, a comparative sub-regional case study approach of the Bay of Fundy (Lower Bay, New Brunswick and Upper Bay, Nova Scotia) yielded common opportunities to achieve the three core governance characteristics (Chapter 4). The opportunities for achieving core governance characteristics are to: learn from past experiences and keep trying new approaches; embrace a spectrum of strategies to enhance quality and appropriateness of actor engagement; and, build capacity of local actor groups for more effective engagement in ICM. Therefore, the following policy pathways for ICM relevant to the Bay of Fundy are recommended: update federal policy statements such as the Oceans Strategy to incorporating past lessons; strengthen commitment to ICM in federal law through the Oceans Act; create provincial engagement strategy to enhance engagement of local actor groups; and, amend the Municipality Acts (provincial legislation) in both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to encourage local capacity building and municipal engagement in ICM. This dissertation highlights critical challenges, opportunities, and examples of policy recommendations to operationalize ICM initiatives from lived experiences in the Bay of Fundy. Additionally, practical suggestions are offered to enhance the role of local actors in complementing federal actions and progressing the operationalization and success of ICM initiatives. These results shape how we as scholars, practitioners, and managers conceptualize ICM as a governance approach to advance sustainability within coastal and marine SES. This research has advanced ICM theory and practice globally by offering a tool (e.g., the Elements and Characteristics of ICM framework) to unpack underlying governance for the successful operationalization of ICM initiatives (i.e., planning and development, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and adaptation).
Towards democratizing water quality monitoring processes for the lower Grand River and nearshore Lake Erie
(University of Waterloo, 2021-10-01) Ho, Elaine; Courtenay, Simon; Trant, Andrew
Freshwater quality issues are among the most pressing challenges of our time. Such issues are increasingly complex and tend to recur when we fail to acknowledge the interacting stressors that influence them. One example of a recurring issue is the prolific growth of Cladophora (a benthic nuisance alga) in the eastern basin of Lake Erie. Water managers thought they had corrected the issue by controlling nutrient loading from the 1970s to the1990s; however, the Cladophora issue returned in the mid-2000s and has persisted due to new factors changing the way the ecosystem works. The Grand River in Southern Ontario remains Lake Erie’s largest contributor of nutrients in Canada, and so is the focus of current management efforts. Problems like this, which are caused by several interacting factors in a given space over time, are known as cumulative effects. Much of the literature on cumulative effects and/or water quality monitoring in this dissertation reflects conventional practice focused on the perspectives of water scientists and managers; however, this dissertation does not replicate this approach. Instead, the social-ecological context surrounding freshwater quality monitoring in the study area is critically considered by incorporating diverse community perspectives alongside conventional perspectives. In the study area, Indigenous communities have treaty rights to participate in the governance of the watershed (which sits entirely within the Haldimand Tract), but these communities – like others – have not been engaged as partners in water quality monitoring or management. One reason for this is that community and Indigenous knowledges often come in different formats than conventional scientists are used to dealing with, and so these forms of community ‘data’ are not easily integrated with conventional data. As Canada moves towards a mandate for reconciliation with Indigenous communities, ignoring the challenge of bringing together different ‘ways of knowing’ is no longer acceptable. Inspired by the Cladophora challenge and the need to diversify monitoring practice, this research strives to answer the following question: How can cumulative effects water quality monitoring be enabled and involve diverse perspectives in the Grand River-Lake Erie interface? This research encourages the democratization of water quality monitoring to ensure more diverse persons can participate in the gathering of water quality information and that their diverse ways of knowing may supplement conventional science in management and decision-making. In other words, this dissertation explores approaches for diversifying perspectives that contribute to our understanding of freshwater quality in the study area. A multimethod approach to research was undertaken to explore what may be done differently. Methods used in this research include a systematic review of monitoring programs (Chapter 3), key informant interviews (Chapter 4), in-person and online workshops (Chapters 5, 7, and 8), and artistic research (Chapter 6) – a new approach in the context of water quality monitoring and management in the study area. First, the systematic review of monitoring programs highlighted aspects of current monitoring to maintain and improve upon. Then, key informant interviews raised 106 strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, as well as 51 recommendations. I also discuss a culture shift towards more holistic thinking and more collaborative water governance, which study participants deemed necessary to develop a strong and resilient cumulative effects monitoring program. To enable this culture shift, two examples of artistic research were implemented to demonstrate potential approaches for diversifying practice. Following, eight recommendations are provided for implementing cumulative effects monitoring in the study area. The multimethod approach results in a framework for collaboration (i.e., organizational structure and process framework) to enable more diverse and collaborative water quality monitoring in the study area that contributes to our ability to understand and address cumulative effects. The proposed framework is community-led (whether catalyzed by community members or invited by government) and incorporates equal weighting of Indigenous and western priorities and monitoring indicators – a unique and potentially transformative contribution to literature and practice. The use of artistic research as an equitable means of community involvement is also new in the study area. Finally, because involving diverse persons to contribute their perspectives demanded the development of different approaches than currently practiced, the research process and its process-related lessons and recommendations may contribute to raising the standard for future research and practice in water quality monitoring. This research also has implications that extend beyond strengthening the practice of water quality monitoring. The core outcomes of the later chapters – e.g., recommendations towards collaborative and community-based monitoring processes coupled with a culture shift regarding the creation and application of knowledge – would, if practiced, support at least three broader transformations in society: a formal sharing of responsibility over natural resources, increased collaboration that is mindful of diversity, and systemic changes in support of Canadian-Indigenous reconciliation. While many aspects of the future scenarios described in the concluding chapter are likely a generation away (or longer) and are far beyond the scope of any one thesis project, my hope is that possible actions catalyzed by this research and other efforts like it will collectively move society in a different, more equitable direction.
THE USE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DNA TO CHARACTERIZE FISH ASSEMBLAGES IN TEMPERATE ESTUARIES OF VARYING LEVELS OF NUTRIENT IMPACT
(University of Waterloo, 2022-12-23) Saunders, Mark; Courtenay, Simon; van den Heuvel, Michael
The inner region has been identified as an important area for evaluating the health of estuaries, as many riverine inputs, like excessive nutrients (eutrophication), are more concentrated here than in the lower reaches of the estuary. However, the inner estuary’s fish assemblage is undersampled in Canada’s southern Gulf of Saint Lawrence due to issue of accessibility, and avoidance due to high macroalgal biomass. To help address these issues, this dissertation investigated the inner estuary’s fish assemblage with novel methods for evaluating these assemblages. Chapter 3 assessed whether the inner estuarine region possessed distinct nearshore fish assemblages relative to the middle and outer estuarine regions. The abundance of northern mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus macrolepidotus) was also investigated as a potential indicator of estuarine eutrophication to simplify the sampling effort. Three Prince Edward Island estuaries with varying levels of nutrient impact were sampled in August 2020 and again, along with one additional estuary, in June and August 2021. Each estuary was sampled in the inner, middle, and outer regions. Results from multivariate analyses suggest that the inner region is generally distinct from the middle and outer regions at all estuaries. Mummichogs were generally found in higher abundance in the inner region of most estuaries and displayed a strong, positive linear correlation with sea lettuce abundance. Nearshore fish assemblages were more similar between estuaries from the same shoreline (north vs south shore) than between estuaries with similar levels of nutrient impact (defined by eutrophic times). However, the inner region of estuaries with higher levels of nutrient impact were found to also have relatively higher mean mummichog abundance than inner regions of estuaries with lower nutrient impact. Thus, mummichog abundance may offer an indication of eutrophication within the inner region of estuaries. Chapter 4 evaluated whether environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding, could act as a complement or replacement to beach seining. Three stations (inner, middle, and outer estuary) were sampled using eDNA medium collection (1 L water samples) and beach seines across estuaries sampled in the previous data chapter. eDNA metabarcoding detected more fish species than beach seining, including deeper water species like striped bass (Morone saxatilis) and the endangered winter skate (Leucoraja ocellata). eDNA metabarcoding also differentiated stations 0.4-3 km apart and detected the seasonal and interannual shifts in the fish assemblages suggested by beach seining. Most surprising was that the most abundant fish taxa detected by eDNA metabarcoding and beach seining often contributed similar percentages of the total composition. Thus, eDNA metabarcoding has not only the potential to act as a complement to beach seining (i.e., detect additional species/ genera) but could serve as a replacement in the sea lettuce-infested inner regions of eutrophic estuaries. This dissertation’s primary findings, namely that mummichog abundance in the inner estuary may serve as an indicator of eutrophication and eDNA metabarcoding could serve as a complement and replacement for beach seining, may be directly used in assessing estuarine health across the southern Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

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Browsing Environment, Resources and Sustainability by Author "Courtenay, Simon"