Browsing by Author "Risko, Evan F."

Now showing 1 - 10 of 10

Anticipating cognitive effort: roles of perceived error-likelihood and time demands
(Springer, 2019) Dunn, Timothy L.; Inzlicht, Michael; Risko, Evan F.
Why are some actions evaluated as effortful? In the present set of experiments we address this question by examining individuals’ perception of effort when faced with a trade-off between two putative cognitive costs: how much time a task takes versus how error-prone it is. Specifically, we were interested in whether individuals anticipate engaging in a small amount of hard work (i.e., low time requirement, but high error- likelihood) versus a large amount of easy work (i.e., high time requirement, but low error-likelihood) as being more effortful. In between-subject designs, Experiments 1 through 3 demonstrated that individuals anticipate options that are high in perceived error-likelihood (yet less time consuming) as more effortful than options that are perceived to be more time consuming (yet low in error-likelihood). Further, when asked to evaluate which of the two tasks was (a) more effortful, (b) more error-prone, and (c) more time consuming, effort-based and error-based choices closely tracked one another, but this was not the case for time-based choices. Utilizing a within-subject design, Experiment 4 demonstrated overall similar pattern of judgments as Experiments 1 through 3. However, both judgments of error-likelihood and time demand similarly predicted effort judgments. Results are discussed within the context of extant accounts of cognitive control, with considerations of how error-likelihood and time demands may independently and conjunctively factor into judgments of cognitive effort.
Cue awareness in avoiding effortful control
(Elsevier, 2019) Dunn, Timothy L.; Gaspar, Connor; Risko, Evan F.
Based on a recent metacognitive account, cognitive effort is the result of an inferential evaluation made over explicitly available cues. Following from this account, we present here a pre-registered experiment that tested the specific hypothesis that explicit awareness of cues that are aligned with cognitive demand is a prerequisite in avoiding effortful lines of action. We attempted to modulate levels of effort avoidance behavior by introducing an incentive (between-subjects) to monitor two lines of action that, unbeknownst to individuals, varied in the probability of a task switch. Importantly, previous research has demonstrated that the difference in these probabilities is relatively opaque to individuals. We did not find strong evidence for our incentive manipulation having an effect on demand avoidance as indexed by individuals’ choices in a block of the task where avoiding effort was instructed. However, we do find that being aware of the task- switching cue appears to increase the likelihood of demand avoidance. We consider these results within the context of the metacognition of cognitive effort.
Examining the Implications of Internet Usage for Memory and Cognition: Prospects and Promise
(APA PsycNet, 2019) Risko, Evan F.
Not so fast: Individual differences in impulsiveness are only a modest predictor of cognitive reflection.
(Elsevier, 2020) Littrell, Shane; Fugelsang, Jonathan; Risko, Evan F.
The extent to which a person engages in reflective thinking while problem-solving is often measured using the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT; Frederick, 2005). Some past research has attributed poorer performance on the CRT to impulsiveness, which is consistent with the close conceptual relation between Type I processing and dispositional impulsiveness (and the putative relation between a tendency to engage in Type I processing and poor performance on the CRT). However, existing research has been mixed on whether such a relation exists. To address this ambiguity, we report two large sample size studies examining the relation between impulsiveness and CRT performance. Unlike previous studies, we use a number of different measures of impulsiveness, as well as measures of cognitive ability and analytic thinking style. Overall, impulsiveness is clearly related to CRT performance at the bivariate level. However, once cognitive ability and analytic thinking style are controlled, these relations become small and, in some cases, non- significant. Thus, dispositional impulsiveness, in and of itself, is not a strong predictor of CRT performance.
Offloading information to an external store increases false recall.
(Elsevier, 2020) Lu, Xinyi; Kelly, Megan O.; Risko, Evan F.
Offloading to-be-remembered information is a ubiquitous memory strategy, yet in relying on external memory stores, our ability to recall from internal memory is often diminished. In the present investigation, we examine how offloading impacts true and false recall. Across three experiments, participants studied and wrote down word lists that were each strongly associated with an unstudied critical word. Recall in the Offloading condition (i.e., when they were told that they would have access to their written lists during recall) was contrasted with a No-Offloading condition (i.e., when they were told that they would not have access to their written lists during recall). We found that offloading decreased true recall of presented words while increasing false recall for unpresented critical words. Results are discussed in terms of offloading’s differential effects on the formation of gist and verbatim traces during encoding.
Optimizing the use of interpolated tests: The influence of interpolated test lag
(APA PsycNet, 2018) Lavigne, Eric; Risko, Evan F.
The use of recorded lectures is increasing rapidly provided growth in online learning. One technique that can be used to improve learning from recorded lectures is interpolated testing – the presentation of tests throughout the recorded lecture. In the present investigation, we examine a critical question with respect to the implementation of interpolated testing in recorded lectures. Where should the tests be located relative to the tested material? Specifically, we examine the influence of the lag between the presentation of the to-be-remembered material and the interpolated test. Across two experiments we compare an immediate test condition (i.e., a test immediately after the relevant information is presented) and a delayed test condition (i.e., a test is presented about 3 minutes after the relevant information is presented). When no feedback was provided immediate interpolated testing was superior to delayed interpolated testing. There was no difference when feedback was provided. Implications of the present results for implementing interpolated testing in educational contexts are discussed.
Overconfidently Underthinking: Narcissism negatively predicts Cognitive Reflection
(Taylor & Francis, 2020) Littrell, Shane; Fugelsang, Jonathan; Risko, Evan F.
There exists a large body of work examining individual differences in the propensity to engage in reflective thinking processes. However, there is a distinct lack of empirical research examining the role of dispositional factors in these differences and understanding these associations could provide valuable insight into decision-making. Here we examine whether individual differences in cognitive reflection are related to narcissism (excessive self-focused attention) and impulsiveness (trait-based lack of inhibitory control). Participants across three studies completed measures of narcissism, impulsiveness and cognitive reflection. Results indicate that grandiose and vulnerable narcissists differ in their performance on problem-solving tasks (i.e., CRT) and preferences for intuitive thinking, as well as the degree to which they reflect on and understand their own thoughts and enjoy cognitively effortful activities. Additionally, though impulsiveness was significantly related to self-report measures of cognitive reflection (i.e., metacognitive reflection, metacognitive insight, and Need for Cognition), it showed no association with a behavioural measure of cognitive reflection (i.e., CRT scores). Our results suggest that certain individual differences in dispositional and personality characteristics may play important roles in the extent to which individuals engage in certain forms of reflective thinking.
The Bullshitting Frequency Scale: Development and psychometric properties
(The British Psychological Society, 2020) Littrell, Shane; Risko, Evan F.; Fugelsang, Jonathan A.
Recent psychological research has identified important individual differences associated with receptivity to bullshit, which has greatly enhanced our understanding of the processes behind susceptibility to pseudo-profound or otherwise misleading information. However, the bulk of this research attention has focused on cognitive and dispositional factors related to bullshit (the product), while largely overlooking the influences behind bullshitting (the act). Here, we present results from four studies (focusing on the construction and validation of a new, reliable scale measuring the frequency with which individuals engage in two types of bullshitting (persuasive and evasive) in everyday situations. Overall, bullshitting frequency was negatively associated with sincerity, honesty, cognitive ability, open-minded cognition, and self-regard. Additionally, the Bullshitting Frequency Scale was found to reliably measure constructs that are: 1) distinct from lying, and; 2) significantly related to performance on overclaiming and social decision tasks. These results represent an important step forward by demonstrating the utility of the Bullshitting Frequency Scale as well as highlighting certain individual differences that may play important roles in the extent to which individuals engage in everyday bullshitting.
The isolation effect when offloading memory
(Elsevier, 2019) Kelly, Megan O.; Risko, Evan F.
Offloading is a widespread and vital strategy for remembering. Yet, we lack a deep understanding of the mechanisms involved during the offloading of to-be-remembered information. One hypothesis is that offloading information is associated with a reduced engagement of top-down mnemonic strategies. A resulting prediction is that phenomena not solely by-products of such mechanisms should remain during offloading. We tested this prediction using the isolation effect (when recall is better for distinct items relative to nondistinct items). Participants had to remember lists of items (words) and, in most cases, were told that they could rely on an external store. On one trial, this expectation was violated, and participants had to unexpectedly rely on their internal/biological memory. Consistent with the prediction, results demonstrate a robust isolation effect irrespective of whether individuals could offload. The findings suggest that memory for distinct events is less susceptible to the typical cost of offloading to-be-remembered information.
Verbal Working Memory Load Dissociates Common Indices of the Numerical Distance Effect: Implications for the Study of Numerical Cognition.
(PsychOpen, 2019) Maloney, Erin A.; Barr, Nathaniel; Risko, Evan F.; Fugelsang, Jonathan A.
In four experiments, we explore the role that verbal WM plays in numerical comparison. Experiment 1 demonstrates that verbal WM load differentially impacts the two most common variants of numerical comparison tasks, evidenced by distinct modulation of the size of the numerical distance effect (NDE). Specifically, when comparing one Arabic digit to a standard, the size of the NDE increases as a function of increased verbal WM load; however, when comparing two simultaneously presented Arabic digits, the size of the NDE decreases (and here is eliminated) as a function of an increased verbal WM load. Experiment 2, using the same task structure but different stimuli (physical size judgments), provides support for the notion that this pattern of results is unique to tasks employing numerical stimuli. Experiment 3 demonstrates that the patterns observed in Experiment 1 are not an artifact of the stimulus pairs used. Experiment 4 provides evidence that the differing pattern of results observed between Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 are due to differences in stimuli (numerical vs. nonnumerical) rather than to other differences between tasks. These results are discussed in terms of current theories of numerical comparison.